The retina is most strongly connected to the underlying membranes of the eyeball along the edge of the optic disc. The thickness of the retina varies in different areas: at the edge of the optic disc it is 0.4–0.5 mm, in the central fossa 0.2–0.25 mm, in the dimple only 0.07–0.08 mm, in the area of the dentate line about 0.1 mm.
The complex structure allows the retina to be the first to perceive light, process and transform light energy into irritation, a signal in which all information about what the eye sees is encoded.
The most important part of the retina is the macula (macular area, yellow spot). The macula is responsible for central vision, as it contains a large number of photoreceptors – cones. They are the ones that give us the opportunity to see well in daylight. Macular diseases can significantly reduce vision.

The retina is a rather complex structure. Microscopically, 10 layers are distinguished in the retina, which are counted from the outside to the inside. The main layers are pigment epithelium and photosensitive cells (photoreceptors). Then there is the outer boundary membrane, the outer nuclear layer, the outer reticular (synaptic) layer, the inner nuclear layer, the inner reticular layer, the ganglion layer, the layer of nerve fibers, the inner boundary membrane.

The retina is a rather complex structure. Microscopically, 10 layers are distinguished in the retina, which are counted from the outside to the inside. The main layers are pigment epithelium and photosensitive cells (photoreceptors). Then there is the outer boundary membrane, the outer nuclear layer, the outer reticular (synaptic) layer, the inner nuclear layer, the inner reticular layer, the ganglion layer, the layer of nerve fibers, the inner boundary membrane.
The first layer is the pigment epithelium. The pigment epithelium extends throughout the optical part of the retina and directly borders the underlying vascular membrane, having a connection with the vitreous plate.
The pigment epithelium is a single layer of densely arranged cells containing a large amount of pigment. The cells of the pigment epithelium have the shape of a hexagonal prism and are arranged in a single row. Such cells are part of the so-called hematoretinal barrier, which ensures the selective flow of certain substances from the blood capillaries of the vascular membrane into the retina.
The second layer is photosensitive cells (photoreceptors) Cone–like and rod-like cells, or in other words, rods and cones, got their name because of the shape of the outer segment. This type of cell is considered to be the first retinal neuron.
The rods are regular cylindrical formations ranging in length from 40 to 50 microns. The total number of rods in the entire retina is about 130 million. They provide vision in low light conditions, such as at night, and have very high light sensitivity.
There are 7 million cones in the retina of the human eye and they act only in bright lighting conditions. They are responsible for central shaped vision and color perception.

• Sudden or slow loss of vision
• Broken or distorted vision
• Flashes of light
• Dark figures floating in front of the eyes (flying flies)
• Blurred vision
• Temporary and short-term vision loss
• Formation of dark areas in the field of view
• What are the types of retinal diseases?Hemorrhages due to diabetes and hypertension
• Retinal vascular occlusion
• Retinal detachment/ tears
• Macular diseases
• Congenital diseases of the retina
• Accumulation of fluid under the retina, retinal edema
• Holes in the macula
• Disorders of the vitreoretinal surface
• Retinal tumors

The adverse effects of diabetes and hypertension on the retina.Diabetes mellitus and hypertension negatively affect all body systems, and first of all they have the greatest negative impact on the eyes. As a result of these diseases, vasodilation and impaired vascular permeability occur in the retina. For this reason, patients with diabetes and blood pressure should be monitored by an ophthalmologist to protect their eye health.

Retinal tears are divided into three types: retinal perforation, horseshoe tear, and laceration. The most common causes of retinal detachment are retinal tears, which we call horseshoe tears, mostly in the form of centrally oriented tears. These tears cause the patient to complain of photopsia (flashes of light). If these ruptures are accompanied by ruptured blood vessels, the patient may also complain of blurred vision. Retinal perforations have an oval shape, but they do not show any symptoms, but are considered a natural consequence of aging. Retinal tears are considered a natural consequence of aging. However, in some cases, retinal perforations may occur as a result of a blow to the eye or surgery. It is very important for eye health to treat these perforations without delay.

• Symptoms of retinal rupture Flashes of light
• Narrowing of the visual field
• A veil over the eyes
• Blurred vision

Retinitis pigmentosa, commonly known as night blindness or night blindness and is one of the hereditary diseases of the retina, is a genetically inherited disease. Retinitis pigmentosa (chicken blindness) usually begins at the age of 10 and continues with consequences such as a narrowing of the visual field, a decrease in the perception of colors and light over time. Recognizing this disease, whose symptoms vary from person to person, at an early age is very important for the course of treatment. For this reason, it is necessary for parents to monitor their children and periodically check whether the children's visual level is normal in dim light.

A bionic eye is a method of treating people who have missing or severely damaged light receptors in the eye, as well as whose optic nerves remain intact, but experience vision loss due to retinitis pigmentosa (chicken blindness). Retinitis pigmentosa, popularly called night blindness or night blindness, is a very serious eye disease that exhibits very different genetic characteristics, is more common in consanguineous marriages and leads to complete blindness. The goal of bionic eye treatment is to increase the level of vision in people with visual impairment due to retinitis pigmentosa by improving their perception of shadows or light.

During treatment with a bionic eye, a chip is placed in the patient's eye, which transmits information to the visual center through special glasses with a camera.

The retinal implant (Bionic Eye/Argus II Retina Prosthesis System), placed in the human eye, consists of two parts. The device operates using an electronic eye that detects objects in the visual field. The eye contains a camera and is connected to a power device to activate the implant.

After treatment, the goal is for the person to perceive light and interpret objects. A person begins to see in black and white, and the perception of shadow and light increases. After treatment, a three-month rehabilitation process begins, and the person begins to see better. In this process, support is provided on how to identify people and objects and how to interpret what they see with the bionic eye.

Retinal detachment occurs due to tears or perforations in the retina. This is often observed in patients with high-grade myopia. This disease can occur at any age, especially in middle and older age.
The retina stretches as the anteroposterior diameter of the eye increases, and the area of its tension begins to thin and change. In some hereditary or degenerative diseases and infections, the retina can also thin and change. Meanwhile, for the same reasons, the vitreous body begins to lose its uniformity and change, its consistency changes and gradually separates from the retina. This separation is called vitreous detachment. Meanwhile, the vitreous body, which shrinks and becomes opaque in places, is perceived by a person as a fly or smoke screen passing through the visual axis of the eye. If retinal detachment is not treated on time, it can cause partial or complete loss of vision.
What are the causes and symptoms of retinal detachment?If left untreated, retinal diseases can lead to permanent blindness.
The main symptoms of retinal detachment are:

• Flashes of light,
• Flying spots,
• Sudden vision loss

These symptoms may be a sign of retinal detachment.
How does the retinal detachment treatment process work?
In the treatment of retinal detachment, it is possible to prevent the effects of vision loss due to early diagnosis, detailed examination, timely and, most importantly, proper treatment. Retinal surgeries are sensitive operations that require good sterilization measures and the use of high technology, otherwise vision loss may result.
Central vision is lost when the macula (the visual center of the eye) separates from the underlying tissue. With prolonged detachment, intraocular balances deteriorate and the eyeball begins to shrink. Sudden strong or penetrating blows to the eye can cause detachment. In diabetes and some degenerative diseases, traction detachment may develop due to the formation of cords that pull the retina into the vitreous body. In rare cases, detachment of the eye can develop without tearing, as with some infections, tumors, or in particular with high-pressure crises that occur during pregnancy.
How is the recovery process going after retinal detachment surgery?The patient can return to daily life 7-10 days after surgery. After retinal detachment surgery, complete restoration of vision is observed within 1-2 months. After surgery, follow-up examinations should be carried out at intervals determined by the ophthalmologist.

Diabetic retinopathy is the most common cause of blindness due to diabetes.
Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disease manifested by an increase in blood sugar levels as a result of insufficient secretion or action of insulin.
Diabetes affects the nervous layer of the eye (retina) and the capillaries in this layer, disrupting its functioning and causing vision loss. The disease of the retina caused by diabetes is called diabetic retinopathy.

The symptoms of diabetic retinopathy may vary depending on the severity of the eye lesion. Many patients with diabetes learn about the damage to their eyes as a result of a detailed eye examination. Diabetic retinopathy is a very serious condition that can lead to vision loss.
For this reason, it is very important for diabetic patients to undergo regular eye examinations for early diagnosis and successful treatment.

The degree and duration of diabetes are the leading risk factors that play a role in the development of diabetic retinopathy. The incidence of retinopathy increases, in particular, 10 years after diagnosis. The incidence of retinopathy after adolescence in young type 1 diabetics or in insulin-dependent diabetics increases with age.

Blood sugar control is an important factor. Uneven blood sugar flow, sudden rises and falls in blood sugar contribute to the deterioration of the retina and the progression of the disease. Pregnancy, hypertension, high blood lipids (hyperlipidemia), and kidney disease are other factors that worsen retinopathy.
Diabetes mellitus disrupts the structure of the retinal capillaries, causes cell death, impaired vascular permeability, accumulation of fluid and oily substances in the macular area, and the appearance of non-nourished areas due to clogging of the capillaries. It creates new vessels in the retina that can bleed spontaneously. Hemorrhages that occur in front of and inside the retina can infiltrate into the posterior cavity of the eye. Vascular membranes form in the retina and can lead to severe vision loss and a painful increase in intraocular pressure.
If the retina is normal in patients with diabetes, the examination should be performed once a year. Tracking is one of the most important points in this disease.
Treatment of diabetic retinopathy
If macular edema occurs in the stages of diabetic retinopathy, treatment is required. It is very important for patients with diabetic retinopathy to undergo regular checkups so that the disease can be brought under control before it begins to progress.
Stages of diabetic retinopathy
Early stage of retinopathy: this is an early stage of the disease. At this stage, microaneurysms begin to form.
Intermediate stage of retinopathy: at this stage, occlusion of some vessels feeding the retina is observed.
Late stage retinopathy: This stage, which we call proliferative diabetic retinopathy, is considered the most advanced stage of retinopathy. At this stage, the vessels have an abnormal structure, different from the normal one. At this stage, vascular bleeding is observed and it is considered the most severe stage.

Macular degeneration (macular degeneration), which is responsible for central vision, is a disease of the retina. It is quite common after the age of 55 and, with progression, can lead to vision loss. Macular disease is a disease of the retina, and early diagnosis is very important for its treatment.

• Who has macular disease?Persons over 55 years of age
• Persons with hereditary predisposition
• Smokers
• Patients with hypertension
• Having systemic diseases affecting the eyes

Risk factors
The main risk factors for age-related macular degeneration are age and heredity. Other risk factors are hypertension, smoking, diet, high levels of lipids-cholesterol, prolonged exposure to the sun and obesity.

• Symptoms of vision loss disease
• Objects and lines appear to be curved or broken
• Darkening of the eyes
• Deterioration of vision quality
• Color vision disorders

What precautions should be taken against macular disease?
Age-related and hereditary factors cannot be eliminated. However, other risk factors can be controlled. If there is hypertension, it needs to be controlled. If you smoke, you should stop smoking. Sunglasses with filters should be worn in the sun. The Mediterranean diet is recommended in the diet. It is recommended to avoid foods containing butter, red meat and cholesterol.
How many types of macular disease exist and what are their consequences?
There are two types of macular disease: dry and wet. About 90% have a dry appearance, and 10% have a wet appearance. Early diagnosis of a wet appearance is more important, as it causes vision loss. This type of disease progresses faster than dry, causes sudden loss of vision, deterioration of color vision and contrast sensitivity, as well as blindness as a result of bleeding of newly formed vessels of the retina and macula over time.

Macular degeneration (macular degeneration), which is responsible for central vision, is a disease of the retina. It is quite common after the age of 55 and, with progression, can lead to vision loss. Macular disease is a disease of the retina, and early diagnosis is very important for its treatment.

• Who has macular disease?Persons over 55 years of age
• Persons with hereditary predisposition
• Smokers
• Patients with hypertension
• Having systemic diseases affecting the eyes

Risk factors
The main risk factors for age-related macular degeneration are age and heredity. Other risk factors are hypertension, smoking, diet, high levels of lipids-cholesterol, prolonged exposure to the sun and obesity.

• Symptoms of vision loss disease
• Objects and lines appear to be curved or broken
• Darkening of the eyes
• Deterioration of vision quality
• Color vision disorders

What precautions should be taken against macular disease?
Age-related and hereditary factors cannot be eliminated. However, other risk factors can be controlled. If there is hypertension, it needs to be controlled. If you smoke, you should stop smoking. Sunglasses with filters should be worn in the sun. The Mediterranean diet is recommended in the diet. It is recommended to avoid foods containing butter, red meat and cholesterol.
How many types of macular disease exist and what are their consequences?
There are two types of macular disease: dry and wet. About 90% have a dry appearance, and 10% have a wet appearance. Early diagnosis of a wet appearance is more important, as it causes vision loss. This type of disease progresses faster than dry, causes sudden loss of vision, deterioration of color vision and contrast sensitivity, as well as blindness as a result of bleeding of newly formed vessels of the retina and macula over time.